Preface                                                                                                                  xv

PART I                         Setting the Scene                                                           1

1                 The Target and the Arrows                                                                    3

1.     Introduction: The Target                                                                                               3

2.     The Arrows                                                                                                                  11

(i)     Shooting at the Sun                                                                                    11

(ii)     Resurrection and History                                                                         12

(a)     The Senses of ‘ History ’                                                         12

(b)     No Access?                                                                               15

(c)      No Analogy?                                                                             16

(d)     No Real Evidence?                                                                   18

(iii)     Resurrection in History and Theology                                                  20

(a)     No Other Starting-Point?                                                         20

(b)     Resurrection and Christology                                                  23

(c)      Resurrection and Eschatology                                                 26

3.     The Historical Starting-Point                                                                                    28

2                 Shadows, Souls and Where They Go:

Life Beyond Death in Ancient Paganism                                    32

1.     Introduction                                                                                                                  32

2.     Shadows, Souls, or Potential Gods?                                                                         38

(i)     Introduction                                                                                                38

(ii)     Witless Shadows in a Murky World?                                                     39

(iii)      Disembodied but Otherwise Fairly Normal?                                        45

(iv)      Souls Released from Prison?                                                                 47

(v)       Becoming a God (or at least a Star)?                                                    55

3.     Further Life from within the World of the Dead?                                                   60

(i)     Introduction                                                                                                60

(ii)      Eating with the Dead                                                                                61

(iii)      Spirits, Souls and Ghosts                                                                        62

(iv)      Returning from the Underworld                                                            64

(v)       Cheating Death: The Scheintod Motif in Novels                                 68

(vi)      Translated to Be With the Gods                                                             76

(vii)      Transmigration of Souls                                                                        77

(viii) Dying and Rising Gods                                                                             80

4.     Conclusion: The One-Way Street                                                                             81

3                 Time to Wake Up (1):

Death and Beyond in the Old Testament                                    85

1.                                                                                                                                            Introduction                                                                                                                                         85

2.     Asleep with the Ancestors                                                                                         87

viii Contents

(i)     Next to Nothingness                                                                                  87

(ii)     Disturbing the Dead                                                                                 93

(iii)     The Unexplained Exceptions                                                                 94

(iv)      The Land of No Return                                                                          96

(v)       The Nature and Ground of Hope                                                         99

3.     And Afterwards?                                                                                                      103

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              103

(ii)     Delivered from Sheol?                                                                           103

(iii)     Glory after Suffering?                                                                          105

(iv)      The Basis of Future Hope                                                                    107

4.     Awakening the Sleepers                                                                                          108

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              108

(ii)     Daniel 12: The Sleepers Wake, the Wise Shine                                  109

(iii)     The Servant and the Dust-Dwellers: Isaiah                                        115

(iv)      On the Third Day: Hosea                                                                     118

(v)       Dry Bones and God’s Breath: Ezekiel                                                119

(vi)     Resurrection and the Hope of Israel                                                    121

5.     Conclusion                                                                                                                127

4                  Time to Wake Up (2):

Hope Beyond Death in Post-Biblical Judaism                          129

1.     Introduction: The Spectrum                                                                                     129

2.     No Future Life, or None to Speak of: The Sadducees                                          131

3.     Blessed (and Disembodied) Immortality                                                               140

4.     Resurrection in Second-Temple Judaism                                                               146

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              146

(ii)     Resurrection in the Bible: The More Greek the Better                       147

(iii)     New Life for the Martyrs: 2 Maccabees                                             150

(iv)      Judgment and Life in God’s New World:

Resurrection and Apocalyptic                                                        153

(v)       Resurrection as the Vindication of the Suffering Wise:

The Wisdom of Solomon                                                                162

(vi)     Resurrection, in Other Words: Josephus                                             175

(vii)      Resurrection at Qumran?                                                                    181

(viii) Pseudo-Philo, Biblical Antiquities                                                        189

(ix) Pharisees, Rabbis and Targumim                                                            190

5.     Resurrection in Ancient Judaism: Conclusion                                                       200

PART II                        Resurrection in Paul                                                   207

5                  Resurrection in Paul (Outside the Corinthian Correspondence) 209

1.     Introduction: The Early Christian Hope                                                                 209

2.     1 and 2 Thessalonians                                                                                              213

3.     Galatians                                                                                                                    219

4.     Philippians                                                                                                                 225

5.     Ephesians and Colossians                                                                                        236

6.     Philemon                                                                                                                   240

7.     Romans                                                                                                                      241

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              241

(ii)     Romans 1—4                                                                                          242

Contents ix

(iii)     Romans 5-—8                                                                                       248

(iv)      Romans 9—11                                                                                       260

(v)       Romans 12—16                                                                                    263

8.     Interlude: The Pastoral Epistles                                                                               267

9.     Paul  (outside the Corinthian Correspondence): Conclusion                                271

6                 Resurrection in Corinth (1): Introduction                                           277

1.                                                                                                                                          Introduction: The Problem                                                                                                             277

2.     Resurrection in 1 Corinthians (apart from Chapter 15)                                       278

(i)     Introduction                                                                                             278

(ii)      1 Corinthians 1—4: God’s Wisdom, God’s Power,

God’s Future                                                                                     280

(iii)     1 Corinthians 5—6: Sex, Lawyers and Judgment                              286

(iv)      1 Corinthians 7: Marriage                                                                    291

(v)       1 Corinthians 8—10:

Idols, Food, Monotheism and Apostolic Freedom                        292

(vi)      1 Corinthians 11—14: Worship and Love                                          294

3.                                                                                                                                          Resurrection in 2 Corinthians (apart from 4.7—5.11)                                                                 297

(i)     Introduction                                                                                             297

(ii)     2 Corinthians 1—2: Suffering and Comfort                                       300

(iii)     2 Corinthians 3.1—6.13: the Apostolic Apologia                            302

(iv)      2 Corinthians 6.14—9.15: Fragments?                                              307

(v)       2 Corinthians 10—13: Weakness and Power                                    307

4.     Conclusion: Resurrection at Corinth                                                                     309

7                 Resurrection in Corinth (2): The Key Passages                                  312

1.     1 Corinthians 15                                                                                                        312

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              312

(ii)     1 Corinthians  15.1-11                                                                           317

(iii)     1 Corinthians 15.12-28                                                                          329

(a)     Introduction                                                                             329

(b)     1 Corinthians 15.12-19                                                          331

(c)      1 Corinthians 15.20-28                                                          333

(iv)      1 Corinthians 15.29-34                                                                         338

(v)       1 Corinthians 15.35-49                                                                         340

(a)     Introduction                                                                             340

(b)     1 Corinthians 15.35-41                                                          342

(c)      1 Corinthians 15.42-9                                                            347

(vi)      1 Corinthians 15.50-58                                                                         356

(vii)      1 Corinthians 15: Conclusion                                                             360

2.     2 Corinthians 4.7—5.10                                                                                           361

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              361

(ii)     2 Corinthians 4.7-15                                                                              362

(iii)     2 Corinthians 4.16—5.5                                                                       364

(iv)      2 Corinthians 5.6-10                                                                             369

(v)       Conclusion                                                                                             370

3.     Conclusion: Resurrection in Paul                                                                            372

8                 When Paul Saw Jesus                                                                          375

1.                                                                                                                                          Introduction                                                                                                                                      375

2.     Paul’s Own Accounts                                                                                              378

x Contents

(i)     Galatians 1.11-17                                                                                    378

(ii)     1 Corinthians 9.1                                                                                    381

(iii)     1 Corinthians 15.8-11                                                                           382

(iv)      2 Corinthians 4.6                                                                                   384

(v)       2 Corinthians 12.1-4                                                                             386

3.     Paul’s Conversion/Call in Acts                                                                               388

4.     Conversion and Christology                                                                                    393

5.     Conclusion                                                                                                                398

PART III                      Resurrection in Early Christianity

(Apart from Paul)                                          399

9            Hope Refocused (1):

Gospel Traditions Outside the Easter Narratives                      401

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               401

2.     Resurrection in Mark and its Parallels                                                                   404

(i)     Healing                                                                                                     404

(ii)      Challenge                                                                                                405

(iii)     The Future Vindication of Jesus                                                          408

(iv)      Puzzles                                                                                                   411

(a)     Herod                                                                                       411

(b)     The Disciples’ Perplexity                                                      414

(v)       The Sadducees’ Question                                                                     415

(a)     Introduction                                                                            415

(b)     No Marriage in the Resurrection                                          420

(c)      God of the Living                                                                   423

(d)     Patriarchs, Exodus and Kingdom                                         426

3.     Resurrection in the Matthew/Luke Material (Sometimes Known as ‘Q’)          429

4.     Resurrection in Matthew                                                                                         434

5.     Resurrection in Luke                                                                                                435

6.     Resurrection in John                                                                                                440

7.     Resurrection in the Gospels: Conclusion                                                               448

10         Hope Refocused (2):

Other New Testament Writings                                                450

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               450

2.     Acts                                                                                                                            451

3.     Hebrews                                                                                                                     457

4.     The General Letters                                                                                                  461

5.     Revelation                                                                                                                 470

6.     Conclusion: Resurrection in the New Testament                                                   476

11         Hope Refocused (3):

Non-Canonical Early Christian Texts                                       480

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               480

2.     Apostolic Fathers                                                                                                      481

(i)     1 Clement                                                                                                 481

(ii)     2 Clement                                                                                                483

(iii)     Ignatius of Antioch                                                                               484

Contents xi

(iv)     Polycarp: Letter and Martyrdom                                                         486

(v)       The Didache                                                                                          488

(vi)     Barnabas                                                                                                489

(vii)      The Shepherd of Hermas                                                                    491

(viii) Papias                                                                                                       492

(ix) The Epistle to Diognetus                                                                          493

3.     Early Christian Apocrypha                                                                                     494

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              494

(ii)      The Ascension of Isaiah                                                                        495

(iii)     The Apocalypse of Peter                                                                      496

(iv)      5 Ezra                                                                                                     498

(v)       The Epistula Apostolorum                                                                   499

4.     The Apologists                                                                                                          500

(i)     Justin Martyr                                                                                            500

(ii)     Athenagoras                                                                                            503

(iii)     Theophilus                                                                                             506

(iv)      Minucius Felix                                                                                      508

5.     The Great Early Theologians                                                                                  510

(i)     Tertullian                                                                                                  510

(ii)      Irenaeus                                                                                                   513

(iii)      Hippolytus                                                                                             517

(iv)      Origen                                                                                                    518

6.     Early Syriac Christianity                                                                                        527

(i)      Introduction                                                                                             527

(ii)      The Odes of Solomon                                                                            528

(iii)     Tatian                                                                                                     531

(iv)      The Acts of Thomas                                                                              532

7.     ‘Resurrection’ as Spirituality? Texts from Nag Hammadi and Elsewhere 534

(i)      Introduction                                                                                             534

(ii)     The Gospel of Thomas                                                                           534

(iii)     Other Thomas Literature                                                                      537

(iv)      The Epistle to Rheginos                                                                       538

(v)       The Gospel of Philip                                                                             541

(vi)      Other Nag Hammadi Treatises                                                            544

(vii)      The Gospel of the Saviour                                                                   546

(viii) Nag Hammadi: Conclusion                                                                    547

8.     The Second Century: Conclusion                                                                           551

12           Hope in Person: Jesus as Messiah and Lord                                           553

1.                                                                                                                                         Introduction                                                                                                                                     553

2.     Jesus as Messiah                                                                                                      554

(i)     Messiahship in Early Christianity                                                          554

(ii)     Messiahship in Judaism                                                                         557

(iii)     Why Then Call Jesus Messiah?                                                           559

3.     Jesus, the Messiah, is Lord                                                                                      563

(i)     Introduction                                                                                              563

(ii)     Jesus and the Kingdom                                                                          566

(iii)     Jesus and Caesar                                                                                   568

(iv)      Jesus and yhwh                                                                                    571

4.     Conclusion: Resurrection within the Early Christian Worldview                      578

xii Contents

PART IV                      The Story of Easter                                                    585

13          General Issues in the Easter Stories                                                        587

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               587

2.     The Origin of the Resurrection Narratives                                                            589

(i)     Sources and Traditions?                                                                          589

(ii)     The Gospel of Peter                                                                               592

(iii)     The Form of the Story                                                                          596

(iv)     Redaction and Composition?                                                               597

3.     The Surprise of the Resurrection Narratives                                                         599

(i)     The Strange Silence of the Bible in the Stories                                   599

(ii)     The Strange Absence of Personal Hope in the Stories                      602

(iii)     The Strange Portrait of Jesus in the Stories                                       604

(iv)      The Strange Presence of the Women in the Stories                          607

4.     The Historical Options                                                                                            608

14          Fear and Trembling: Mark                                                                      616

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               616

2.     The Ending                                                                                                                617

3.     From Story to History                                                                                              625

4.     Easter Day from Mark’s Point of View                                                                 627

15          Earthquakes and Angels: Matthew                                                          632

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               632

2.     Ruptured Earth and Rising Corpses                                                                       632

3.     The Priests, the Guards and the Bribe                                                                   636

4.     Tomb, Angels, First Appearance (28.1-10)                                                           640

5.     On the Mountain in Galilee (28.16-20)                                                                 642

6.     Matthew and the Resurrection: Conclusion                                                          645

16          Burning Hearts and Broken Bread: Luke                                                647

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               647

2.     Luke 24 and Acts 1 within Luke’s Work as a Whole                                           649

3.     The Unique Event                                                                                                    656

4.     Easter and the Life of the Church                                                                           659

5.     Luke and the Resurrection: Conclusion                                                                 660

17          New Day, New Tasks: John                                                                    662

1.     Introduction                                                                                                              662

2.     John 20 within the Gospel as a Whole                                                                   667

3.     The Contribution of John 21                                                                                  675

4.     The Gospel Easter Stories: Conclusion                                                                 679

PART V                        Belief, Event and Meaning                                        683

18          Easter and History                                                                                   685

1.     Introduction                                                                                                               685

2.     The Tomb and the Meetings                                                                                    686

3.     Two Rival Theories                                                                                                  697

Contents xiii

(i)     ‘Cognitive Dissonance’                                                                          697

(ii)     A New Experience of Grace                                                                 701

4.     The Necessary Condition                                                                                        706

5.     The Historical Challenge of Jesus’ Resurrection                                                  710

19          The Risen Jesus as the Son of God                                                         719

1.     Worldview, Meaning and Theology                                                                        719

2.     The Meanings of ‘Son of God’                                                                               723

(i)     Introduction                                                                                             723

(ii)      Resurrection and Messiahship                                                              726

(iii)     Resurrection and World Lordship                                                       728

(iv)      Resurrection and the Question of God                                               731

3.     Shooting at the Sun?                                                                                                 736

Bibliography                                                                                                      739

Abbreviations                                                                                                      739

1.     Stylistic Shorthands                                                                                                  739

2.     Primary Sources                                                                                                        739

3.     Secondary Sources, etc.                                                                                           741

A         Primary Sources                                                                                      745

1.     Bible                                                                                                                           745

2.     Other Jewish Texts                                                                                                   745

3.     Other Early Christian and Related Texts                                                               746

4.     Pagan Texts                                                                                                               747

B         Secondary Literature                                                                               751

Indexes                                                                                                               780

Index of Ancient Sources                                                                                    780

1.     Old Testament                                                                                                           780

2.     Apocrypha                                                                                                                 784

3.     Pseudepigrapha                                                                                                         785

4.     Qumran                                                                                                                      786

5.     Josephus                                                                                                                     787

6.     Philo                                                                                                                           787

7.     Rabbinic Works                                                                                                        787

8.     New Testament                                                                                                         788

9.     Christian and/or Gnostic Works                                                                              799

10.     Greco-Roman Texts                                                                                                802

11.     Persian Texts                                                                                                           806

12.     Egyptian Texts                                                                                                        806

Index of Modem Authors                                                                                    807

Index of Selected Topics                                                                                     812